Dance Notation Guide
Dance is an ephemeral art — a performance exists in the moment and then is gone. Dance notation systems address this ephemerality by creating written records of movement that can be preserved, reconstructed, and transmitted across time and space. This guide explores the major notation systems, their applications, and contemporary approaches to dance documentation.
Why Notate Dance
Notation serves several essential purposes. Historical preservation allows choreographic works to survive beyond the lifetime of their creators. The works of Martha Graham, George Balanchine, and Merce Cunningham are still performed today because they were notated or recorded. Reconstruction allows companies to revive works for new generations of dancers. Copyright protection requires a fixed record of choreographic work. Analysis and research benefit from notation that can be studied independently of live performance. Pedagogy uses notation to teach movement analysis and choreographic structure. All of these functions depend on a notation system that can capture the complexity of human movement. Notation also gives contemporary dancers access to historical works, making it a vital thread in dance history.
Labanotation
Labanotation, also called Kinetography Laban, was developed by Rudolf Laban in the early twentieth century and is the most widely used dance notation system in the world. Laban was a movement theorist who analyzed human movement across four categories: body, effort, shape, and space. Labanotation focuses primarily on the spatial and structural aspects of movement. The notation uses a vertical staff that represents the body. The center line divides left and right. Symbols placed on the staff indicate direction, level, duration, and part of the body. Reading from bottom to top, the notation shows the sequence of movements over time. A Labanotation score can record everything from a grand jeté to the detailed articulation of fingers. Certified Labanotation teachers and notators undergo extensive training. The Dance Notation Bureau in New York maintains a library of notated scores and trains professional notators.
Benesh Movement Notation
Benesh Movement Notation was invented by Rudolf Benesh, a mathematician and artist, and his wife Joan Benesh, a dancer. It was developed in the 1950s and is widely used by the Royal Academy of Dance and many ballet companies. Benesh notation uses a five-line staff that corresponds to the human body: the top line represents the top of the head, and the bottom line represents the floor. Symbols placed on or between the lines indicate the position of body parts in space. Movement is read from left to right across the page. Benesh notation is particularly well-suited for recording ballet choreography because its spatial representation corresponds naturally to the vertical orientation of ballet positions. The Benesh Institute, now part of the Royal Academy of Dance, provides training and certification.
Other Notation Systems
Several other notation systems have been developed for specific purposes. Eshkol-Wachman Movement Notation, developed in Israel, uses a horizontal staff and is valued for its precision in recording joint angles. Sutton Movement Writing and its descendant, SignWriting, represent movement through stick-figure symbols and are used for both dance and sign language recording. Motivation Notation, developed by Margaret Morris, emphasizes the expressive intent behind movement. Feuillet notation, the earliest known dance notation system, was published in 1700 and recorded Baroque court dances. These systems continue to be used by specialists, though Labanotation and Benesh remain the dominant forms.
The Limits of Notation
All notation systems have limitations. They require extensive training to read and write fluently. They cannot capture every nuance of performance — the subtle weight shift, the quality of breath, the dynamic phrasing that distinguishes one dancer’s interpretation from another’s. Notation scores must be supplemented by rehearsal memory, video recording, and the living tradition of dancers teaching dancers. For these reasons, notation has never become universal in the dance world. Many choreographers create without notation and pass their works on through direct transmission.
Video Documentation
Video recording has transformed dance documentation. High-definition video, multiple camera angles, and digital storage make it possible to capture performances with detail that notation cannot match. Video provides immediate access — anyone can watch a recorded performance without learning a notation system. However, video presents its own limitations. A camera captures one perspective, missing the three-dimensional reality of live performance. Video records a single performance, not the ideal or essential version of the work. Lighting and staging that serve live performance may obscure movement detail on video. Video also lacks the analytical specificity of notation — it cannot isolate a single arm position or label a specific joint angle without corresponding annotation.
Hybrid Approaches
Contemporary dance documentation increasingly combines notation, video, and written description. A typical documentation package might include a Labanotation score for structural accuracy, video recordings of rehearsals and performances, written notes on artistic intent and performance traditions, and interviews with the choreographer and original dancers. This hybrid approach compensates for the limitations of each medium. The Motion Bank project, initiated by the Forsythe Company, developed digital tools for analyzing and annotating dance video, creating interactive scores that link notation-like symbols directly to video footage. For choreographers developing new works, understanding notation systems can enhance the choreographic process.
Choreographic Recording for the Independent Artist
Most independent choreographers do not employ professional notators. Simple recording practices can still preserve works. Video recordings with consistent camera placement and clear labeling make reconstruction possible. Written notes documenting counts, spacing, formations, and artistic intentions support the video record. Some choreographers develop personal shorthand systems that combine words, diagrams, and counts. Regular review sessions — watching recorded work with dancers to note corrections and refinements — keep the documentation current.
Learning Notation as a Dancer
Most dancers will not become professional notators, but basic familiarity with notation systems enriches their practice. Many university dance programs include a semester of Labanotation or Movement Analysis in their curricula. Dancers who can read notation can access historical scores, work more efficiently with reconstructors, and analyze movement with greater precision. Basic Labanotation can be learned in a semester-long course, with enough vocabulary to follow a simple score. Online resources including the Dance Notation Bureau’s educational materials and video tutorials make introductory learning accessible. Even without formal training, understanding the concepts behind notation — how movement can be represented spatially and temporally — improves a dancer’s analytical and communicative abilities.
Digital Tools for Notation and Documentation
Technology has expanded the tools available for dance documentation. Lifeforms and DanceForms are three-dimensional animation programs that allow choreographers to create and view movement on a computer before teaching it to dancers. These tools include libraries of Labanotation symbols and can produce notated scores from animated sequences. NotateMe is a tablet-based application for Benesh notation. Video annotation tools like Anvil, ELAN, and Motion Bank’s digital scores allow users to overlay notation or comments on video footage. Motion capture technology, while expensive, creates three-dimensional records of movement that can be analyzed, rotated, and studied from any angle. These digital tools are making dance documentation more accessible, though they supplement rather than replace the trained human notator.
Legal and Ethical Considerations
Choreographic works are copyrightable, and notation or video documentation serves as evidence of the work’s creation and ownership. Choreographers should maintain clear records of their works, including dates, collaborators, and documentation. When reviving or restaging works from notation, notators and reconstructors must respect the choreographer’s artistic property rights. Ethical reconstruction honors the choreographer’s intent while acknowledging the contributions of the reconstructor.
Notation in Dance Education
Dance notation has an important place in dance education. University dance programs increasingly include movement analysis and notation in their curricula as part of a comprehensive dance education. Learning notation develops analytical thinking about movement — students who study notation become more precise in their observation and description of dance. It also connects dance to other academic disciplines, including anatomy, music theory, and linguistics. High school dance programs using notation can satisfy academic standards for written work in arts courses. Notation literacy also supports dance scholarship by enabling students to read and write about movement with precision. Dance educators who incorporate notation into their teaching prepare students not only as performers but as informed citizens of the dance world. This analytical awareness translates directly into more intentional performance practice.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is there a standard dance notation system? Labanotation is the most widely used system internationally, particularly in North America and Europe. Benesh Movement Notation is common in ballet and is the standard for the Royal Academy of Dance. No single system is universally used.
How long does it take to learn Labanotation? Basic proficiency requires approximately six months to a year of regular study. Professional-level fluency takes several years of dedicated training and practice.
Can I notate my own choreography? Yes. While professional notation is complex, simplified notation — using key symbols, spatial diagrams, and written descriptions — can effectively support reconstruction for personal or small-scale works.
Why do dancers still learn by watching? Direct transmission — watching, imitating, and being corrected — remains the primary method of dance learning because it conveys qualitative aspects of movement that notation cannot capture. Most dancers learn from both notation and demonstration.
How has technology changed dance notation? Digital tools now enable annotation of video, real-time motion capture, and interactive notation systems. These technologies are making dance documentation more accessible to choreographers without formal notation training.